Research

References & Sources

2988 sources, sorted alphabetically by first author. Page 43 of 50.

Speece, M.W. & Brent, S.B. (1984). Children's Understanding of Death: A Review of Three Components of a Death Concept. Child Development, 55(5), 1671-1686.
Cited in
- When Loss Makes Everything Scary: Grief and the Anxious Child
  Mapped the four subconcepts of death understanding, providing the developmental framework for understanding why anxiety after loss manifests differently by age.
Speed, B.C., Goldstein, B.L. & Goldfried, M.R. (2018). Assertiveness Training: A Forgotten Evidence-Based Treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 25(1).
Cited in
- Setting Boundaries with Confidence
  Meta-analysis establishing moderate-to-large effect sizes (d = 0.58-0.78) for assertiveness training, with behavioral rehearsal identified as the strongest predictor of effectiveness.
- Everyday Negotiations: Getting What You Need Without Feeling Like You're Fighting
  Review of 17 RCTs showing assertiveness training consistently reduces submissive behavior and cost overestimation of assertive behavior, with behavioral rehearsal plus outcome feedback producing the strongest effects.
Speed, B.C., Goldstein, B.L., & Goldfried, M.R. (2018). Assertiveness Training: A Forgotten Evidence-Based Treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 25(1).
Cited in
- The Art of Saying No: Boundary-Setting Scripts That Work
  Meta-analysis establishing moderate-to-large effect sizes (d = 0.58-0.76) for assertiveness training, with behavioral rehearsal of scripts producing the largest effects.
Spence, S.H., Donovan, C., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. (1999). Social skills, social outcomes, and cognitive features of childhood social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(2), 211-221.
Cited in
- Making Friends When You're Anxious: Social Development Research
  Showed that socially anxious children could identify correct social responses on written measures but failed to produce them in behavioral role-plays, confirming the knowledge-performance gap.
Spence, S.H., Donovan, C., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. (2000). The Treatment of Childhood Social Phobia: The Effectiveness of a Social Skills Training-Based, Cognitive-Behavioural Intervention, with and without Parental Involvement. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(6), 713-726.
Cited in
- Social Skills at School: Programs That Help Anxious Kids Thrive
  Showed that CBT with social skills training produces significant improvements in childhood social anxiety, while raising important questions about long-term durability when group differences attenuated at twelve-month follow-up.
Spencer, S.J., Xu, L., Clarke, M.A., et al. (2012). Ghrelin Regulates the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Restricts Anxiety After Acute Stress. Biological Psychiatry, 72(6), 457-465.
Cited in
- When Hunger Feels Like Anxiety (and Vice Versa)
  Found that ghrelin reduces anxiety after acute stress by acting on the HPA axis, with ghrelin-deficient mice showing more anxious behavior under stress.
Spielberger, C.D. (1999). STAXI-2: State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2. Psychological Assessment Resources.
Cited in
- When Frustration Feels Like Fear: Recognizing Anger as an Anxiety Signal in Later Life
  Established that trait anxiety and trait anger correlate at r=0.35-0.45, demonstrating shared dispositional vulnerability.
Spielman, A.J., Saskin, P., & Thorpy, M.J. (1987). Treatment of Chronic Insomnia by Restriction of Time in Bed. Sleep, 10(1), 45-56.
Cited in
- Why 3am Belongs to You: Understanding Nighttime Anxiety in Later Life
  Developed sleep restriction therapy as a core CBT-I component, establishing the principle that consolidating sleep into a narrower window increases sleep pressure and reduces time awake.
Spitzberg, B.H., & Cupach, W.R. (2011). Interpersonal Skills. Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, 481-524.
Cited in
- Coming Back After Isolation: How to Rebuild Social Confidence When the World Feels Too Big
  Provided the foundational model of social competence as a tripartite skill set (motivation, knowledge, skill) rather than a fixed trait, establishing the theoretical basis for understanding social skill atrophy and recovery after isolation.
Spurr, J.M., & Stopa, L. (2003). The Observer Perspective: Effects on Social Anxiety and Performance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(9), 1009-1028.
Cited in
- Body Image and Social Anxiety: The Mirror That Follows You Out the Door
  Confirmed observer-perspective imagery was associated with greater negative self-evaluation and more anxiety across both clinical and non-clinical samples.
Spurr, J.M. & Stopa, L. (2002). Self-focused attention in social phobia and social anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(7), 947-975.
Cited in
- Perspective Taking: Seeing the Situation Through Someone Else's Eyes
  Comprehensive review confirming that self-focused attention mediates the relationship between negative self-beliefs and post-event rumination in social anxiety.
- Public Transit Interactions: Using Commutes as Exposure Opportunities
  Confirmed that observer perspective and self-focused attention correlate with anxiety severity, explaining the cognitive mechanism by which transit's enforced stillness amplifies social discomfort.
- Say Hello First: Initiating Greetings with Neighbors
  Confirmed that self-focused attention and observer perspective correlate with anxiety severity, explaining the cognitive mechanism behind hyper-awareness during brief neighbor encounters.
- Library and Bookshop Interactions: Using Shared Interests as Social Entry
  Confirmed that structured social interactions produce lower self-focused attention than unstructured ones, supporting the value of script-available environments for exposure.
Spurr, J.M. & Stopa, L. (2002). Self-Focused Attention in Social Phobia and Social Anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(7), 947-975.
Cited in
- Navigating a Conference or Seminar When You Don't Know Anyone
  Confirmed experimentally that self-focused attention increases during transitions from structured to unstructured social conditions, supporting the mechanism behind conference break anxiety.
Sramek, P., Simeckova, M., Jansky, L., Savlikova, J., Vybiral, S. (2000). Human Physiological Responses to Immersion into Water of Different Temperatures. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 81, 436-442.
Cited in
- Cold Water, Calm Mind: The Science of Temperature and Stress
  Documented the largest reported catecholamine responses to cold water immersion: 530% norepinephrine increase and 250% dopamine increase at 14 degrees Celsius. Establishes the neurochemical magnitude of cold exposure.
- Cold Water Exposure
  Established the dose-dependent catecholamine response to cold water immersion, showing 530% norepinephrine and 250% dopamine increases at 14C, providing the quantitative foundation for understanding the 'cold water high.'
- Hot Then Cold, Cold Then Hot: The Shower Pattern That Resets Your Nervous System
  Provided critical neurochemical data showing cold water immersion at 14 degrees Celsius produces 530% norepinephrine increase and 250% dopamine increase without significant cortisol elevation, establishing the catecholamine basis for mood and alertness effects.
Sroufe, L.A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E.A., & Collins, W.A. (2005). The Development of the Person: The Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaptation from Birth to Adulthood. Guilford Press.
Cited in
- It's Just Daycare, Right? The Science Behind Separation Anxiety in Toddlers
  30-year longitudinal study showing that early insecure attachment predicted but did not determine later anxiety, with intervening experiences (supportive teachers, peer relationships, therapy) moderating outcomes.
Stalvey, B.T., Owsley, C., Sloane, M.E., & Ball, K. (1999). The Life Space Questionnaire: A measure of the extent of mobility of older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 18(4), 460-478.
Cited in
- When the Keys Don't Feel Like Freedom Anymore: Driving Cessation and Anxiety
  Found that environmental context factors including walkability, transit access, and social proximity were the strongest predictors of post-cessation adjustment.
Stangier, U., Heidenreich, T., Peitz, M., Lauterbach, W., & Clark, D.M. (2003). Cognitive Therapy for Social Phobia: Individual Versus Group Treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(9), 991-1007.
Cited in
- What If You Could Make Months of Progress in Days?
  Confirmed that Clark's individual cognitive therapy model maintains its component structure and effectiveness across delivery formats, supporting the adaptability of the protocol to intensive scheduling.
- The Gold Standard: Clark's Individual Approach to Social Anxiety
  Replicated Clark's individual cognitive therapy effectiveness in a German clinical sample, supporting cross-cultural generalizability of the model and treatment approach.
Stangier, U., Heidenreich, T., & Schermelleh-Engel, K. (2006). Safety Behaviors and Social Performance in Patients With Generalized Social Phobia. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20(1), 17-31.
Cited in
- Dating and Social Anxiety: What the Research Shows About Romantic Connection
  Situated dating safety behaviors within the broader cognitive model, explaining how impression management strategies sacrifice authenticity for perceived control and produce the performed quality partners detect.
Stanley, M.A., Wilson, N.L., Novy, D.M., et al. (2009). Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder Among Older Adults in Primary Care. JAMA, 301(14), 1460-1467.
Cited in
- Medication Sensitivity: Why Anxiety Treatment Looks Different After 60
  Demonstrated that adapted CBT (Calmer Life) with larger print, phone delivery, and family coaches produces significant anxiety reduction in diverse, underserved older populations.
- Getting Help Later in Life: How Talk Therapy Really Does Work Differently as You Get Older
  Demonstrated that culturally adapted CBT (Calmer Life) was effective for diverse, low-income older adults in real-world primary care settings, establishing ecological validity for adapted approaches.
Stansfeld, S.A. & Matheson, M.P. (2003). Noise Pollution: Non-Auditory Effects on Health. British Medical Bulletin, 68(1), 243-257.
Cited in
- Noise, Crowds, and Overstimulation: The Environmental Triggers of Anxiety
  Established dose-response relationships between environmental noise and anxiety across aircraft, road traffic, and occupational exposures, showing the gradient does not plateau with subjective adaptation.
Stapleton, P., Sheldon, T., Porter, B., & Whitty, J. (2011). A Randomised Clinical Trial of a Meridian-Based Intervention for Food Cravings with Six-Month Follow-Up. Behaviour Change, 48, 102260.
Cited in
- EFT Tapping: The Evidence Behind the Practice That Looks Ridiculous
  Demonstrated that self-administered EFT programs produce significant and maintained results, supporting the accessibility of tapping as a self-help tool without requiring professional guidance.
Stasser, G. & Titus, W. (1985). Pooling of Unshared Information in Group Decision Making: Biased Information Sampling During Discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1467-1478.
Cited in
- 1 in 5 People Fear Communication — You’re Not Alone
  Established that groups over-discuss shared information while under-discussing unique information held by individual members, with quiet members disproportionately holding that unique knowledge, demonstrating the group-level cost of silencing quieter voices.
- Leading a Team Meeting: The Anxious Manager's Playbook
  Demonstrated the hidden-profile problem: groups fail to surface unique member information in unstructured discussion, validating structured turn-taking as a quality facilitation strategy.
Stasser, G., & Titus, W. (1985). Pooling of Unshared Information in Group Decision Making: Biased Information Sampling During Discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1467-1478.
Cited in
- Give the Wrong Answer: Tolerating Being Incorrect in Groups
  Established the hidden-profile paradigm showing groups fail to surface unique member information, providing context for why diverse contributions including wrong answers improve group outcomes.
Stecco, A., Stern, R., Porzionato, A., et al. (2011). Hyaluronan Within Fascia in the Etiology of Myofascial Pain. Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy, 33(10), 891-896.
Cited in
- Neck and Shoulder Myofascial Release: Working Out the Knots That Anxiety Creates
  Used ultrasound elastography to demonstrate that chronically loaded fascia shows increased density and altered hyaluronic acid viscosity, providing the structural basis for why rest alone doesn't resolve chronic myofascial tension.
Steele, C.M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 261-302.
Cited in
- The Self-Affirmation Exercise: Reminding Yourself What You Stand For
  Founded self-affirmation theory, establishing that people maintain global self-integrity and can restore it by affirming valued domains unrelated to the current threat.
- The Strengths Scan: Finding What Anxiety Hasn't Touched
  Established self-affirmation theory showing that reflecting on valued self-domains reduces defensive processing, the theoretical basis for strength-focused interventions.
Steffen, P.R., Austin, T., DeBarros, A., & Brown, T. (2017). The Impact of Resonance Frequency Breathing on Measures of Heart Rate Variability, Blood Pressure, and Mood. Frontiers in Public Health, 5, 222.
Cited in
- Breathing Rate Matters More Than Breathing Depth
  Showed that even a single 15-minute session of resonance frequency breathing produced measurable HRV improvements and reduced anxiety, establishing accessibility of the technique.
Steger, M.F., Oishi, S., Kashdan, T.B. (2009). Meaning in Life Across the Life Span: Levels and Correlates of Meaning in Life from Emerging Adulthood to Older Adulthood. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(1), 43-52.
Cited in
- Finding What Pulls You Forward: Purpose, Meaning, and Anxiety in the Second Half
  Revealed that actively searching for meaning is associated with MORE anxiety in older adults, while having meaning is associated with less -- a critical asymmetry.
Stein, M.B., Goldin, P.R., Sareen, J., Zorrilla, L.T., & Brown, G.G. (2002). Increased Amygdala Activation to Angry and Contemptuous Faces in Generalized Social Phobia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(11), 1027-1034.
Cited in
- What Happens in Your Brain When Social Anxiety Strikes
  Showed exaggerated amygdala response to harsh facial expressions in social phobia, one of the early demonstrations of the amygdala hyperactivation pattern.
Stein, D.J., Lim, C.C.W., Roest, A.M., et al. (2017). The Cross-National Epidemiology of Social Anxiety Disorder: Data from the World Mental Health Survey Initiative. BMC Medicine, 15(1), 143.
Cited in
- Social Anxiety Is More Common Than You Think
  Provided the global perspective by pooling data from 142,405 people across 28 countries, confirming that social anxiety is a universal human experience whose prevalence varies by culture and measurement method, not by whether it exists.
Stein, M.B. & Stein, D.J. (2008). Social Anxiety Disorder. The Lancet, 371(9618), 1115-1125.
Cited in
- Social Anxiety Is More Common Than You Think
  The definitive clinical review that articulated the treatment paradox: the fear of judgment that defines social anxiety directly prevents people from seeking help for it. Identified converging barriers to treatment contact.
- You Don't Need a Diagnosis to Struggle — or to Get Better
  Established social anxiety disorder as the most common anxiety disorder, one that typically takes hold by early adulthood, and noted that even with effective treatments available, 30-40% of patients do not fully respond.
- Medication Plus Therapy: Does the Combination Beat Either Alone?
  Comprehensive review synthesizing SSRI response rates (50-65%) and discontinuation relapse rates (30-50% within 3-6 months), establishing the consistent pattern across trials.
Stein, M. B., & Stein, D. J. (2008). Social anxiety disorder. The Lancet, 371(9618), 1115-1125.
Cited in
- The Treatment Gap: Why Most People Never Get Help
  Seminal review establishing the treatment gap as a defining feature of SAD, identifying the multilevel barrier structure with the self-blocking paradox at its center.
Stein, M. B., & Kean, Y. M. (2000). Disability and quality of life in social phobia: epidemiologic findings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(10), 1606-1613.
Cited in
- The Treatment Gap: Why Most People Never Get Help
  Demonstrated lower educational attainment and income among people with social anxiety, establishing the socioeconomic dimensions of the treatment gap's cost.
Stein, M.B., Walker, J.R., & Forde, D.R. (1994). Setting Diagnostic Thresholds for Social Phobia: Considerations from a Community Survey of Social Anxiety. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(3), 408-412.
Cited in
- You Don't Need a Diagnosis to Struggle — or to Get Better
  Demonstrated that relaxing diagnostic thresholds increased prevalence without proportional reduction in impairment, showing that the DSM cutoff captures a practical decision point rather than a natural clinical boundary.
Stein, M.B., Liebowitz, M.R., Lydiard, R.B., et al. (1998). Paroxetine treatment of generalized social phobia (social anxiety disorder): A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 280(8), 708-713.
Cited in
- Medication Plus Therapy: Does the Combination Beat Either Alone?
  Established core SSRI efficacy parameters: 55% response, NNT=3.2, but also revealed that 45% of responders retained moderate impairment, highlighting medication's incomplete resolution.
Stein, M.B., Chen, C.Y., Jain, S., et al. (2017). Genetic risk variants for social anxiety. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 174(2), 120-131.
Cited in
- The Anxiety Gene Myth: What Heredity Research Actually Shows
  Large GWAS (N > 200,000) identifying anxiety-associated loci that each explain under 0.1% of variance, confirming the massively polygenic architecture of anxiety.
Stein, M.B., Fuetsch, M., Muller, N., Hofler, M., Lieb, R., & Wittchen, H.U. (2001). Social Anxiety Disorder and the Risk of Depression: A Prospective Community Study of Adolescents and Young Adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(3), 251-256.
Cited in
- When Anxiety Brings Friends: Why It Rarely Comes Alone
  Quantified the specific risk: social anxiety at baseline predicted subsequent major depression with an odds ratio of 3.5, demonstrating that social anxiety functions as a specific pathway to depression rather than a general vulnerability marker.
Stein, M.B. & Gorman, J.M. (2001). Unmasking Social Anxiety Disorder. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 26(3), 185-189.
Cited in
- Eating in Public: Why Something So Simple Can Feel So Hard
  Clinical review identifying eating in public as a core performance-type social fear, distinct from interaction fears in its central concern with observable behavior and motor performance under observation.
Steinhausen, H.C., Wachter, M., Laimbock, K., & Metzke, C.W. (2006). A Long-Term Outcome Study of Selective Mutism in Childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(7), 751-756.
Cited in
- Selective Mutism: When Anxiety Steals a Child's Voice
  A controlled long-term outcome study finding selective mutism symptoms improved considerably by young adulthood, though affected individuals still showed higher rates of phobic and other psychiatric disorders than peers without a childhood history of selective mutism.
Stelle, C., Fruhauf, C.A., Orel, N., Landry-Meyer, L. (2010). Grandparenting in the 21st Century: Issues of Diversity in Grandparent-Grandchild Relationships. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 53(8), 682-701.
Cited in
- The Grandparent Worry You Don't Talk About: Anxiety About Getting It Right
  Reviewed how grandparents' gender, sexual orientation, and physical or cognitive limitations shape grandparent-grandchild relationships, highlighting overlooked issues of diversity in this population.
- It Runs in the Family, But So Does the Way Out: Intergenerational Anxiety Patterns
  Documented how grandparents can serve as corrective attachment figures, providing grandchildren with emotional safety that may have been missing in the parent-child relationship.
Stengel, A. & Tache, Y. (2009). Neuroendocrine control of the gut during stress: corticotropin-releasing factor signaling pathways in the spotlight. Annual Review of Physiology, 71, 219-239.
Cited in
- Why Anxiety Hits Your Stomach First: The Seconds-to-Minutes Gut Response
  Systematically reviewed CRF receptor subtype pharmacology, confirming that CRF-R1 antagonists block stress-induced colonic hypermotility and CRF-R2 mediates gastric stasis.
Stephan, K.E., Iglesias, S., Heinzle, J., & Diaconescu, A.O. (2015). Translational Perspectives for Computational Neuroimaging. Neuron, 87(4), 716-732.
Cited in
- The Math Behind Your Anxiety: How Researchers Are Modeling the Brain Like a Computer
  Outlined the vision for computational phenotyping in psychiatry, arguing that individual parameter profiles could guide personalized treatment selection for anxiety and other conditions.
Stephan, W.G. & Stephan, C.W. (1985). Intergroup Anxiety. Journal of Social Issues.
Cited in
- Attending a Religious or Spiritual Gathering for the First Time
  Defined and modeled intergroup anxiety: highest when outcome uncertainty, threat of negative evaluation, and absence of behavioral scripts co-occur — all three conditions present for religious service newcomers.
Stephens, G.J., Silbert, L.J., & Hasson, U. (2010). Speaker-Listener Neural Coupling Underlies Successful Communication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(32), 14425-14430.
Cited in
- Listening Is Not Passive: How Your Response Shapes Conversation
  Provided neural evidence that engaged listening creates temporal coupling between speaker and listener brain activity (r = 0.42 with comprehension), which disappears when listeners are distracted.
Stephens, M.A.C. & Wand, G. (2012). Stress and the HPA Axis: Role of Glucocorticoids in Alcohol Dependence. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 34(4), 468-483.
Cited in
- The Night After Drinking: Why Alcohol Makes Anxiety Worse the Next Day
  Established that repeated HPA axis disruption from alcohol produces progressive dysregulation, with each episode producing a larger cortisol overshoot, explaining why hangover anxiety sensitizes rather than habituates.
- A Drink to Take the Edge Off: Alcohol, Anxiety, and Older Adults
  Documented HPA axis dysregulation from chronic alcohol use, showing elevated cortisol during withdrawal that exceeds pre-drinking baselines and drives rebound anxiety.
Steptoe, A., Deaton, A., & Stone, A.A. (2015). Subjective Wellbeing, Health, and Ageing. The Lancet, 385(9968), 640-648.
Cited in
- Retirement and Identity: When Losing Your Role Triggers Anxiety
  ELSA data showing that purpose in life predicted approximately 30% lower all-cause mortality over 8.5 years, positioning purpose-building as a health intervention with evidence comparable to physical activity.
- Showing Up for Others, Showing Up for Yourself: Why Volunteering Does Something Real for Anxiety
  ELSA data (N=9,050) showing purpose in life predicted approximately 30% lower all-cause mortality over 8.5 years, positioning purpose as a health factor comparable to physical activity.
Steptoe, A., Shankar, A., Demakakos, P., Wardle, J. (2013). Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(15), 5797-5801.
Cited in
- Social Shrinkage: Why Older Adults' Worlds Get Smaller — and How to Stop It
  Using ELSA data (n=6,500), demonstrated that social isolation predicted mortality independent of loneliness, confirming that each is a distinct risk factor requiring separate intervention.
Steptoe, A., & Fidler, H. (1987). Stage Fright in Orchestral Musicians: A Study of Cognitive and Behavioural Strategies in Performance Anxiety. British Journal of Psychology, 78(2), 241-249.
Cited in
- Stage Fright's Cousin: Anxiety Before Creative Performance
  Documented the cardiovascular activation-recovery arc in professional musicians, showing pre-performance arousal peaks and drops rapidly once playing begins, reframing the stress response as transient activation.
Stetter, F. & Kupper, S. (2002). Autogenic training: a meta-analysis of clinical outcome studies. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 27(1), 45-98.
Cited in
- Progressive Muscle Relaxation: 90 Years of Evidence for a Simple Technique
  Provided convergent meta-analytic evidence that relaxation techniques including PMR produce medium-to-large effects on anxiety with persistent follow-up benefits.
- Your Hands Run Cold When You're Anxious: Here's How to Use That
  Meta-analysis of 60 studies confirming medium-to-large effect sizes for autogenic training across stress-related conditions, validating the warmth training component as clinically effective.
Stiles, R.N. (1976). Frequency and Displacement Amplitude Relations for Normal Hand Tremor. Journal of Applied Physiology, 40(1), 44-54.
Cited in
- When Your Voice Shakes: The Body Science Behind Tremor and Anxiety
  Confirmed the frequency characteristics of physiological tremor and the role of beta-adrenergic activation in modulating tremor amplitude.
Stillman, A.N., Rowe, K.C., Arndt, S., & Moser, D.J. (2012). Anxious symptoms and cognitive function in non-demented older adults: An inverse relationship. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(8), 792-798.
Cited in
- "Am I Losing My Mind?": Cognitive Decline Worry vs. Actual Decline
  Confirmed that trait anxiety in non-demented older adults is consistently associated with worse executive function, working memory, and processing speed, supporting anxiety as a direct cognitive drag.
Stockdale, L.A., Coyne, S.M. (2020). Bored and online: Reasons for using social media, problematic social networking site use, and behavioral outcomes across the transition to college. Journal of Adolescence, 79, 173-183.
Cited in
- Screens at Bedtime Aren't the Only Problem: A Research-Based Look at Screen Time and Child Anxiety
  Found that using social media to relieve boredom or to socially connect predicted increased problematic use and anxiety over a three-year period, while using it to seek information showed no such link.
Stone, L. (2008). Email Apnea. Linda Stone (blog/observations).
Cited in
- Email Apnea and Chest Breathing: The Hidden Breathing Habits That Quietly Feed Anxiety
  Coined the term 'email apnea' after observing that approximately 80% of people hold their breath or breathe shallowly while reading and responding to email, establishing the foundational observation for this article.
Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999). Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most. Penguin.
Cited in
- Conflict Resolution Practice: Having the Hard Conversation
  Developed the Three Conversations framework showing that every difficult conversation operates on three simultaneous layers: factual disagreement, feelings, and identity.
Stone, A.A., Schwartz, J.E., Schwarz, N., Schkade, D., Krueger, A., & Kahneman, D. (2006). A Population Approach to the Study of Emotion: Diurnal Rhythms of a Working Day Examined With the Day Reconstruction Method. Emotion, 6(1), 139-149.
Cited in
- Track It for Seven Days Without Fixing It: A Practice for Understanding Your Pattern
  Demonstrated that momentary anxiety follows a diurnal cortisol-linked pattern, showing that self-monitoring can reveal timing-driven anxiety often misattributed to situational triggers.
Stonerock, G.L., Hoffman, B.M., Smith, P.J., & Blumenthal, J.A. (2015). Exercise as Treatment for Anxiety: Systematic Review and Analysis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49(4), 542-556.
Cited in
- Exercise as Anxiety Medicine: What the Research Shows
  Synthesized exercise prescription parameters for anxiety, establishing moderate-intensity aerobic exercise 3-5 times weekly as the evidence-based protocol and integrating acute, subacute, and chronic mechanism pathways into a temporal model.
- The 20-Minute Walk: Minimum Effective Dose of Exercise for Anxiety
  Comprehensive review concluding that 20-30 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise three times weekly produces clinically significant anxiety reduction, while positioning exercise as adjunct rather than standalone treatment.
- Exercise as Anxiety Management
  Systematic review of 12 RCTs finding exercise benefits for anxious adults similar to established treatments and greater than placebo, though most studies had methodological limitations including inadequate assessment of adherence and fitness levels.
- Hiking as Exposure Plus Exercise: The Double Benefit Most People Miss
  Found that treatment adherence was a stronger moderator of exercise-anxiety outcomes than intensity or duration, establishing consistency as the most important variable in exercise prescription.
Stoodley, C.J., & Schmahmann, J.D. (2009). Functional Topography in the Human Cerebellum: A Meta-Analysis of Neuroimaging Studies. NeuroImage, 44(2), 489-501.
Cited in
- Balance Exercises for Anxiety: Why Standing on One Leg Might Do More Than You Expect
  Demonstrated cerebellar functional topography showing connectivity between posterior cerebellar regions and limbic structures, supporting the pathway from balance-related cerebellar engagement to emotional regulation.
Stopa, L. & Clark, D.M. (1993). Cognitive Processes in Social Phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31(3), 255-267.
Cited in
- The Self-Focus Trap: How Watching Yourself Makes Anxiety Worse
  Documented the systematic discrepancy between how people with social anxiety rate their own appearance and performance versus how independent observers rate them, establishing the perceptual distortion as a measurable phenomenon.
- The Four Beliefs That Keep Social Anxiety Alive
  Demonstrated the self-perception gap: socially anxious individuals consistently rated their performance far more negatively than independent observers, with the disconnect tracking anxiety intensity rather than actual performance quality.
- The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy of Social Anxiety
  Found that socially anxious individuals generate significantly more negative self-evaluative cognitions during social interactions than both non-anxious controls and people with other anxiety conditions.
- Setting Boundaries with Confidence
  Demonstrated empirically that socially anxious individuals overestimate both the probability and cost of negative social outcomes, supporting the prediction-outcome discrepancy in boundary-setting.
Stopa, L., & Clark, D.M. (2000). Social phobia and interpretation of social events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(3), 273-283.
Cited in
- The Expectation Gap: Why You Think Everyone's Standards Are Higher Than Yours
  Demonstrated that individuals with social phobia interpret ambiguous social events more negatively than both depressed and non-clinical controls, with the bias specific to social content.
- LinkedIn and the Anxiety of Professional Self-Promotion Online
  Found that socially anxious individuals generate more negative predictions about social situations, extended here to show how career-specific predictions are uniquely unfalsifiable.
- Challenging Negative Thoughts
  Provided direct empirical evidence that people with social anxiety interpret ambiguous social scenarios significantly more negatively than both anxious and non-clinical controls, with large effect sizes.
- And Then What? The Decatastrophizing Technique
  Demonstrated empirically that individuals with social anxiety overestimate both the probability and cost of negative social outcomes compared to controls, providing the evidence base for why decatastrophizing targets both dimensions.
- Behavioral Experiments for Social Anxiety
  Documented that socially phobic individuals systematically interpret ambiguous social events more negatively than controls, providing the rationale for survey experiments.
- Complaint Practice: Giving Feedback Without Catastrophizing
  Demonstrated that socially anxious individuals generate vivid negative self-images during social interactions that function as prospective threat appraisals.
- Email Templates: Stop Overthinking Every Send
  Established that socially anxious individuals interpret ambiguous social events more negatively than non-anxious controls, explaining why email's inherent ambiguity is particularly anxiety-provoking.
- Post-Event Processing: Stopping the Replay Loop
  Found that socially anxious individuals inferred negative observer evaluations from internal cues rather than actual social feedback, supporting the internal-impression distortion mechanism.
Stopa, L. & Clark, D.M. (1993). Cognitive processes in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31(3), 255-267.
Cited in
- Shame Attacking Exercises: Deliberately Doing the "Embarrassing" Thing
  Established the illusion of transparency in social anxiety: people believe their internal anxiety states are far more visible to others than they actually are.
- Your First Date Survival Guide (Including the Part Where Anxiety Shows Up)
  Demonstrated near-zero correlation between self-rated and observer-rated performance in socially anxious individuals, establishing that post-event self-assessment in anxiety is effectively decoupled from reality.
- Getting Through the Workplace Lunch Without Eating Your Anxiety Instead
  Extended Rapee and Lim by showing that observer ratings of anxious and non-anxious speakers were indistinguishable, confirming that the self-observer gap reflects perceptual distortion rather than actual performance deficit.
Stopa, L. (2009). Imagery and the Threatened Self: Perspectives on Mental Imagery and the Self in Cognitive Therapy. Routledge.
Cited in
- Changing the Label You Put on Yourself: When 'I'm Just an Anxious Person' Stops Being True
  Demonstrated that negative self-images in anxiety disorders resist updating even after positive experiences, highlighting the need for deliberate, structured revision of self-representations.
Stopa, L., & Clark, D.M. (2000). Social Phobia and Interpretation of Social Events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(3), 273-283.
Cited in
- Teach Someone Something: Using Explanation as Exposure
  Found that people with social phobia interpret ambiguous social moments negatively and catastrophize mildly negative ones, the same interpretation bias that makes a shaky explanation in front of others feel worse than it looked.